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The slices proceed from higher (near the top of the head) to lower (with cerebellum) from left to right the front of the brain is toward the top of the picture and the left side of the image is the left side of the brain fungus like protist examples buy mycelex-g amex. This quantified image demonstrates that propofol anesthesia is associated with a dramatic antifungal mechanism of action purchase online mycelex-g, fairly uniform reduction in whole-brain metabolism fungus horses buy cheap mycelex-g 100mg online. In this subject antifungal liquid equate order mycelex-g cheap online, unconsciousness was associated with a whole-brain metabolic reduction (from baseline) of 62%. The figure shows the regional metabolic variability that occurs in response to the anesthetic agent propofol. A dose-response relationship is clearly evident in which higher drug doses further decrease brain metabolism. Because subjects remained aware during the sedation scans, these data suggest that unconsciousness results only when global neuronal functioning is reduced below some critical threshold required to maintain consciousness. Thus, loss of consciousness for this sample of subjects occurred at a mean 62 percent metabolic reduction during propofol anesthesia and sedation occurred at a mean 34 percent whole-brain metabolic reduction. Moreover, these findings suggest that loss of consciousness occurs when global neuronal functioning is reduced below some critical threshold required for maintaining consciousness. Thus, these data suggest that whatever or wherever consciousness is, it appears to be a phenomenon well distributed in the human brain. A few considerations prevent us, though, from fully accepting the well-distributed idea of consciousness. This figure shows that a similar pattern in regional metabolism is evident during both sedation and anesthesia with propofol. The primary difference between conscious and unconscious conditions appears to be a global, fairly uniform, further reduction in brain metabolism from the sedated to the anesthetized condition. Under a similar protocol to the propofol study, we have now studied the effects of the inhalational anesthetic agent isoflurane on human brain metabolism (Alkire et al. Moreover, the pattern of regional metabolism seen during isoflurane anesthesia did not significantly differ from the pattern evident when the subjects were awake. This similarity suggests that isoflurane produced the unconscious state by causing a global uniform reduction in brain functioning, rather than by specifically affecting one consciousness circuit. Nonetheless, the uniformity in metabolic reduction during isoflurane anesthesia, coupled with the fairly uniform metabolic reduction during propofol anesthesia both seem to Page 262 Figure 23. The image shows that isoflurane anesthesia dramatically reduces whole-brain metabolism in a fairly uniform manner. For this representative subject, isoflurane anesthesia produced a whole-brain metabolic decrease (from baseline) of 46 percent. This subject participated in both the propofol and the isoflurane studies and is the one displayed in the propofol example above (see Figure 23. Page 263 suggest that consciousness may be a phenomenon widely distributed in the human brain. Thus, after studying only two anesthetic agents in the human brain, we may be seeing a pattern in global versus regional metabolic changes produced by anesthesia. Two classes of anesthetic agents each produced unconsciousness by reducing global brain functioning below some specific level. In both the loss of consciousness appeared to be associated more with the global whole-brain metabolic reduction produced by each agent than with any specific regional metabolic change produced by each agent. Moreover, the, doseresponse effect of propofol on whole-brain glucose metabolism clearly suggests that sedation and anesthesia result from global rather than regional decreases in neuronal functioning. Certainly, though, some parts of the brain must be more important than others for consciousness to occur. In one encoding condition the subjects remained fully awake, whereas in the other the subjects were rendered unconscious with propofol general anesthesia. As one might expect, following the anesthesia condition none of the subjects had objective recall of any information that was presented to them when they were unconscious. Nonetheless, when these subjects were tested on a forced-choice recognition test they did better than expected by chance at selecting the words they had been exposed to a day earlier when unconscious under general anesthesia. Furthermore, following the forced-choice testing, each subject was specifically asked if the recognition test had triggered memories for the words previously presented.
This principle squares well with the preceding one antifungal agents buy mycelex-g in united states online, when the capacity for verbal report is present: availability for verbal report and availability for global control seem to go together in such cases (report is one of the key aspects of control definition of fungus like protist buy mycelex-g 100mg amex, after all antifungal otc oral buy mycelex-g 100mg cheap, and it is rare to find information that is reportable but not available more widely) fungus gnats kitchen generic 100mg mycelex-g overnight delivery. A correlation between consciousness and global availability (for short) seems to fit the first-person evidence- that gleaned from our own conscious experience-quite well. When information is present in my consciousness, it is generally reportable, and it can generally be brought to bear in controlling behavior in all sorts of ways. I can talk about it, I can point in the general direction of a stimulus, I can press bars, and so on. Conversely, when we find information that is directly available in this way for report and other aspects of control, it is generally conscious information. There are some tricky puzzle cases to consider, such as blindsight, where one has some availability for control but arguably no conscious experience. Those cases might best be handled by invoking the directness criterion: insofar as the information here is available for report and other control processes at all, the availability is indirect by comparison to the direct and automatic availability in standard cases. One might also stipulate that it is availability for voluntary control that is relevant, to deal with cases of involPage 223 untary unconscious response, although that is a complex issue. I discuss a number of puzzle cases in more detail elsewhere (Chalmers 1997), where I also give a much more detailed defense of the idea that something like global availability is the key preempirical criterion for the ascription of consciousness. But this principle remains at best a first-order approximation of the functional criteria that come into play. I am less interested today in getting all the fine details right than in exploring the consequences of the idea that some such functional criterion is required and is implicit in all the empirical research on the neural correlate of consciousness. If you disagree with the criterion I have suggested-presumably because you can think of counterexamples-you may want to use those examples to refine it or to come up with a better criterion of your own. The crucial point is that in the very act of experimentally distinguishing conscious from unconscious processes, some such criterion is always at play. I will use global availability as my main functional criterion in this discussion, but many of the points should generalize. The first thing one can do is produce what philosophers call a rational reconstruction of the search for the neural correlate of consciousness. With a rational reconstruction we can say: Maybe things do not work exactly like this in practice, but the rational underpinnings of the procedure have something like this form. Consciousness global availability (bridging principle) neural process N (empirical work), and so neural process N (conclusion). According to this reconstruction, one implicitly embraces some sort of preexperimental bridging principle that one finds plausible on independent grounds, such as conceptual or phenomenological grounds. The two stages are highly intertwined; our preexperimental principles may themselves be refined as experimental research goes along. Nevertheless I think one can make a separation into preempirical and experimental components for the Page 224 sake of analysis. The first conclusion is a characterization of the neural correlates of consciousness. The only alternative is that it might be a symptom rather than a mechanism of global availability; but in principle that possibility ought to be addressable by dissociation studies, lesioning, and so on. If a process is a mere symptom of availability, we ought to be able to empirically dissociate it from global availability while leaving the latter intact. The resulting data would suggest to us that consciousness can be present even when the neural process in question is not, thus indicating that it was not a perfect correlate of consciousness after all. In principle, mechanisms of indirect availability will be dissociable from the empirical evidence for consciousness, for example by directly stimulating the mechanisms of direct availability. For example, the 40-Hz oscillations discussed by Crick and Koch were put forward precisely because of the role they might have in binding and integrating information into working memory, and working memory is of course a major mechanism whereby information is made available for global control in a cognitive system. All these mechanisms and many of the others seem to be candidates for mechanisms of global availability in the brain. This reconstruction suggests that a full story about the neural processes associated with consciousness will do two things. Once we know all about the relevant neural processes, we will know precisely how information is made directly available for global control in the brain, and this will be an explanation in the full sense.
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